Social Effects of Technology Essay - 6374 Words

Introduction The interaction of technology and society may be the one thing more than any other that gives society a meaning and defines us a human beings. In recent years it has become popular to point fingers of accusation at technology as if it were autonomous and driving us all to perdition. I take other view. No doubt the uses of technology and society interact strongly. I think it wrongheaded and very naive to think of aggressive technology affecting a passive society eroding away the things that give society value and leaving behind a rusted hulk. Admittedly there always the potential for abuse or misuse of a technology, but technology is not inherently destructive, I argue. In the following we will consider ten effects†¦show more content†¦An entirely new industry had been born in the form of the microprocessor, a stepchild of the larger computer industry available only to big businesses with big dollars to buy big computing power. New skills and new opportunities for employment have come about as a result. The expansion of the computer market and proliferation of microcomputers into the mainstream of American life have increased the ability of the homemaker to run a household effectively; to shop and cook more efficiently; to learn about the true nature of family finances; and to create part-time productive jobs, and for a host of other things. The nation has, in effect, stepped out of the industrial arena into the information arena. Here is a single technology that has so changed our ability to gather, store, manipulate, and disseminate information that the entire economic structure has been transformed, And all from a single technological change, albeit with a highly sophisticated and extensively proliferated collection of applications. The computer and its impact on the economic structure is no less startling and dramatic than that of the steam engine; electric power; or for that matter, fire and the wheel. Through the computer, the efficiency and expansion of the economy have been so greatly accelerated that we are hard pressed to keep up with the changes. It is indeed revolutionary in nature and explosive in the speed at whichShow MoreRelated Social Effects of Technology Essays6300 Words   |  26 Pages Introduction The interaction of technology and society may be the one thing more than any other that gives society a meaning and defines us a human beings. In recent years it has become popular to point fingers of accusation at technology as if it were quot;autonomousquot; and driving us all to perdition. I take other view. No doubt the uses of technology and society interact strongly. 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Private Versus Public Indonesian Schools Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

string(41) " of 1527 observations and 231 variables\." Besides [ 2 ] , there is another paper that investigated the effectivity of private and public junior secondary schools in the Indonesian context. [ 8 ] studied the relationship between school pick and academic public presentation alternatively of school pick and future net incomes. [ 8 ] found that the academic public presentation of public junior secondary schools pupils was higher than private school pupils as measured by national concluding trial test tonss ( UN[ 1 ]) upon completion of junior secondary school. We will write a custom essay sample on Private Versus Public Indonesian Schools Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Therefore, contrary to Bedi and Garg, [ 8 ] believe that public junior secondary schools are more effectual than private junior secondary schools. [ 8 ] besides doubt that the positive consequence of private schools could outweigh the high quality of public schools ‘ input quality. This paper presents a re-examination of Bedi and Garg ‘s appraisal on differential net incomes of public and private junior secondary school pupils, which is the nucleus of their empirical analysis. Using Bedi and Garg ‘s sample informations set, I obtained contradictory consequences to them. I found that their decision is biased and misdirecting. I am besides concerned about the usage of some placeholders of school quality indexs in Bedi and Garg ‘s net incomes theoretical account. Bedi and Garg used three variables that do non specifically demo the quality of junior secondary schools. Alternatively, Bedi and Garg use variables that show the status of the last school attended. Hence, it may be either a junior or a senior secondary school. I believe the used of inappropriate placeholders of school quality may bias the cogency of Bedi and Garg ‘s net incomes derived function. Last but non least, Bedi and Garg used the individual imputation of average permutation to get the better of the losing information. I believe this attack may skew the findings. I used the up-to-date MICE ( multiple imputation by chained equations ) attack to handle the losing value job. Using MICE, I besides found contradictory consequences to Bedi and Garg ‘s as the public school alumnuss net incomes are higher than private non spiritual school alumnuss. 2 Sample Replication The first measure used to retroflex Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) was to make an indistinguishable information set to Bedi and Garg ‘s. Bedi and Garg use the Indonesia Family Life Survey 1 ( IFLS1 ) 1993 to gauge the effectivity of private and public schools in Indonesia. The IFLS1 is a large-scale longitudinal observation of single and household degree on socioeconomic and wellness study. The IFLS1 trying strategy was based on states, so the samples were indiscriminately selected within states. Due to cost-effectiveness the study had took merely 13 out of 26 states on the Island of Java, Sumatra, Bali, West Nusa Tenggara, Kalimantan, and Sulawesi. They were selected to stand for about 83 per centum of the Indonesian population. In 2000, RAND as the major manufacturer of IFLS published the 3rd moving ridge of IFLS, so called IFLS3. Harmonizing to the RAND web site, the populace usage files and certification of IFLS4 should be ready by early 2009. Bedi and Garg do non explicate the gro und they merely use the first moving ridge. However, I assume that Bedi and Garg do non utilize IFLS2 and IFLS3 as the research was conducted before the IFLS3 was publically released. Despite Rand has printing IFLS2 in 1997, the moving ridge does non incorporate employment informations that consists of net incomes and the figure of hours worked informations[ 2 ] [ htbp ] Comparison of Exclusion Process Item Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) Fahmi* Initial income information 4900 7220 Had non proceeded beyond primary instruction 3391 5448 Had more than 12 old ages of instruction 291 274 Lack of information on hours of work 33 37 Missing information on school type 10 13 Reported incomes seemed incredibly high 3 9 Missing information on category size – 41 Attend ( erectile dysfunction ) school more than 12 month ( miscoded ) – 45 Missing information on failed in primary school – 1 Missing information on male parent ‘s instruction – 214 Missing information on female parent ‘s instruction – 80 Missing information on school location – 6 Missing information on faith – 2 Number of staying observation 1194 1050 * ) The Exclusion stairss follows Bedi and Grag ( 2000 ) and another exclusion procedure can alter the consequence. I created a sample informations based on Bedi and Garg ‘s counsel ( pages 467-468 ) . However, I failed to reproduce Bedi and Garg ‘s sample informations even though I merged all necessary files and cleaned the informations right. My initial sample informations set consisted of 7220 respondents who have net incomes and are no longer pupils. The size of the initial information was about twice Bedi and Garg ‘s initial sample informations with 4900 observations. Missing and miscoded informations and besides sample limitations reduced the information set by 6170 ( more than 85 per centum ) to 1050 observations. Most of the observations, 5448, were dropped as they had non proceeded beyond primary school, while 274 observations were dropped since they had more than 12 old ages instruction. Furthermore, I dropped 13 respondents due to losing information on the school type and 9 observations as they had either 99997 or 999997 on entire monthly net incomes. Finally, I exclud ed the staying 389 observations as they had either losing information, miscoded category size ( 41 observations ) , figure of months in school period per twelvemonth ( 45 ) , failed in primary school ( 1 ) , parents ‘ instruction ( 294 ) , state where school is located ( 6 ) , and faith ( 2 ) . Table 1 nowadayss the full comparing of the exclusion procedure. Bedi and Garg used the IFLS1 issued by RAND in 1996 ( DRU-1195-CD ) . On the other manus, I used the IFLS1 information set called IFLS1-RR ( re-release ) that updates the original IFLS1. [ 9 ] explains that IFLS1-RR revisions and restructures the original IFLS1 to attach to with IFLS2. The different construction of IFLS1 ‘s DRU-1195-CD and IFLS1-RR perchance causes the mismatch between my sample informations and Bedi and Garg ‘s. Bedi kindly sent the sample informations set, PUBPRIV.DTA[ 3 ]. Bedi and Garg create the file on 7 February 1998 which consists of 1527 observations and 231 variables. You read "Private Versus Public Indonesian Schools Health And Social Care Essay" in category "Essay examples" However, Bedi and Garg did non direct the do-file[ 4 ]. Therefore, I can non track the building of sample informations. I tracked the difference of the sample informations sets by comparing Bedi and Garg ‘s sample that consists of 1194 observations with my 1050 observations. I can fit Bedi and Garg ‘s sample by 745 observations. Of the staying 449 observations, 17 observations are unidentified and 305 are considered as losing information. On the other manus, Bedi and Garg ‘s sample does non incorporate 305 observations from my sample informations despite those observations do non hold losing informations. Of the 305 observations losing informations, 34 observations have no information on the figure of months in a twelvemonth go toing school and 32 observations have no information on category size. Bedi and Garg substitute the losing informations on those observations by utilizing a sample average alternatively of dropping the figure of observations. The staying 214 observations have no information on either male parent ‘s or female parent ‘s instruction. Bedi and Garg put â€Å" 0 † value on those observations alternatively of dropping them. Despite Bedi and Garg explicating the major exclusion procedure, they do non indicate out the permutation procedure on the 305 observations. On the other manus, I provide the sketch of the tracking procedure in Table 1. I present the complete comparing of drumhead statistics between Bedi and Garg ‘s sample informations and my sample informations from IFLS1-RR in Table 2. [ T ] Table 1: Tracking Process of Mismatch Sample Data No. Note Obs. 745 Identical 17 Unidentified 152 Had more than 12 old ages instruction 34 – Missing information on period of school in months. – Bedi and Garg substitute the losing informations by sample mean. 32 – Missing information on category size. – Bedi and Garg substitute the losing informations by sample mean. 154 – Missing information on male parent instruction. – Bedi and Garg put â€Å" 0 † , alternatively of losing value in three silent person variable male parent of instruction. – Three variables of male parent instruction are FATH_PRI and FATH_JH and FATH_SH. 60 – Missing information on female parent instruction. – Bedi and Garg put â€Å" 0 † , alternatively of losing value in two dummy variables of female parent instruction. – Two variables of female parent instruction are MOTH_PRI and MOTH_SEC. Since my sample informations does non fit with Bedi and Garg ‘s sample, I can non reproduce all Bedi and Garg ‘s appraisal consequences. However, I continued the remainder of the appraisals by utilizing Bedi and Garg ‘s sample. Using Bedi and Garg ‘s sample I can retroflex Table 1 and 2 in Bedi and Garg ‘s paper. Table 1 in Bedi and Garg ‘s paper presents the descriptive statistics of all variables whereas Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics by type of school. I could retroflex the consequence of the coefficients on polynomial logit appraisal in Table 3. However, I could non fit the consequence on fringy effects of explanatory variables. Technically, I generated the consequence utilizing mlogit and mfx2 faculty on stata. I present the consequence on polynomial logit appraisal in Table 8 in appendix. Variable Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) Fahmi ( R ) 2-5 Mean Std. Dev Mean Std. Dev — Continued Variable Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) Fahmi ( R ) 2-5 Mean Std. Dev Mean Std. Dev Continued on Following Page†¦ LOGEARN -0.202 1.079 -0.290 1.063 EARN 1.492 2.567 2.030 17.655 Age 34.66 7.502 34.264 7.321 Junior 0.307 0.462 0.415 0.493 Senior 0.521 0.499 0.527 0.500 Male 0.672 0.469 0.689 0.463 Indonesian 0.404 0.491 0.370 0.483 HIN_BUD 0.066 0.248 0.074 0.262 Jesus 0.091 0.289 0.092 0.290 PRI_FAIL 0.204 0.403 0.208 0.406 Scholar 0.048 0.215 0.040 0.196 FATH_PRI 0.422 0.494 0.521 0.500 FATH_JH 0.101 0.302 0.113 0.317 FATH_SH 0.085 0.279 0.084 0.277 MOTH_PRI 0.380 0.485 0.470 0.499 MOTH_SEC 0.109 0.312 0.094 0.292 DIRT FLOOR 0.067 0.251 0.044 0.205 Class Size 36.47 9.301 36.651 8.884 Calendar months 9.459 1.849 9.638 1.710 OTH_PR 0.023 0.148 0.031 0.175 SKALI_ED 0.043 0.204 0.036 0.187 NSUMA_ED 0.106 0.308 0.097 0.296 WSUMA_ED 0.068 0.253 0.049 0.215 SSUMA_ED 0.051 0.220 0.052 0.223 LAMP_ED 0.023 0.151 0.027 0.161 EJAVA_ED 0.120 0.325 0.135 0.342 WJAVA_ED 0.139 0.346 0.131 0.338 CJAVA_ED 0.141 0.348 0.155 0.362 BALI_ED 0.048 0.215 0.058 0.234 NTB_ED 0.042 0.200 0.056 0.230 YOGYA_ED 0.067 0.251 0.065 0.246 SSULA_ED 0.042 0.202 0.038 0.192 JAKAR_ED 0.079 0.270 0.069 0.253 URBAN 0.708 0.455 0.670 0.470 SKALMNT 0.043 0.204 0.050 0.219 NSUMATRA 0.098 0.297 0.084 0.277 WSUMATRA 0.066 0.250 0.045 0.207 SSUMATRA 0.053 0.225 0.057 0.232 EJAVA 0.103 0.304 0.117 0.322 WJAVA 0.131 0.338 0.125 0.331 CJAVA 0.088 0.284 0.098 0.298 Bali 0.054 0.226 0.068 0.251 NTB 0.042 0.202 0.057 0.232 LAMPUNG 0.029 0.168 0.034 0.182 YOGKARTA 0.067 0.251 0.065 0.246 SSULAWES 0.042 0.202 0.040 0.196 Jakarta 0.176 0.381 0.160 0.367 Number of Sample 1194 1050 Table 2: Comparison of Descriptive Statistics Table 3 nowadayss the consequences on fringy consequence after polynomial logit appraisal. All Bedi and Garg ‘s fringy effects are different to my consequences. The marks on the coefficient of fringy effects in my consequences contradict Bedi and Garg ‘s consequences. Those coefficients are MOTH_SEC in private non spiritual and public appraisals, HIN_BUD in private Islam school, FATH_JH in private Islam school, and FATH_PRI in private Christian school. The differences may bespeak that Bedi and Garg used different techniques or faculties in gauging fringy consequence after polynomial logit. I used the the stata ‘s faculty mfx2 that suggested by [ 13 ] . [ 13 ] argues that mfx2 likely the most utile after multiple-outcome appraisals such as mlogit. On the other manus, Bedi and Garg do non advert the faculty or stata bid in the fringy consequence appraisal. Table 3: Fringy Effectss Appraisals Variable Public Private NR Private Is Private Ch 2-9 Bedi Fahmi Bedi Fahmi Bedi Fahmi Bedi Fahmi and and and and Garg Garg Garg Garg Male -0.0154 -0.005 -0.0259 -0.002 -0.0253 -0.005 0.0667 0.012 Indonesian -0.0345 -0.006 -0.0244 -0.001 0.0441 0.006 0.0147 0.001 Hin_bud 0.1983 0.003 – -0.005 0.2817 0.123 -0.4819 -0.121 Jesus 0.0318 0.062 -0.2304 -0.029 0.2371 0.291 -0.0385 -0.323 Pri_fail 0.0897 0.017 -0.0304 -0.001 -0.0196 -0.002 -0.0397 -0.014 Fath_pri 0.0348 0.007 0.0171 0.001 -0.0028 0.001 -0.0548 -0.010 Fath_jh -0.0183 -0.004 0.0022 -0.000 -0.0289 -0.004 0.0450 0.008 Fath_sh -0.0048 -0.006 -0.0680 -0.003 -0.0752 -0.008 0.1481 0.017 Moth_pri -0.0147 -0.006 -0.0413 -0.002 -0.0293 -0.005 0.0854 0.013 Moth_sec 0.0139 -0.001 -0.0387 -0.002 -0.0390 0.008 0.0638 -0.005 Nitrogen 221 133 73 767 [ parity ] Bedi and Garg= [ 2 ] . Fahmi=Fahmi ‘s appraisal utilizing Bedi and Garg ‘s sample. Public is public school. Private NR is private not spiritual. Private Is is private Islam. Private Ch is Private Christan and other. 3 Selectivity Variables Bedi and Garg include the selectivity variables in the net incomes appraisals and the net incomes decompositions. Bedi and Garg argue that in Indonesia, the junior secondary school sorting is a consequence of parental pick and choice standards that in some instance may implement by the school. In doing the determination, Bedi and Garg assume that parents evaluate the benefits of go toing each peculiar school and they face four available school types, public, private non-religious, private Islamic and private Christian schools. The school screening that is based on choice standards is most likely true for public secondary school as they require a certain degree of concluding trial tonss before accepting the pupils. Bedi and Garg besides suggest that school sorting may non be exogenic and the pupil who has higher ability may be more likely to come in public secondary schools. Bedi and Garg used two-stage appraisal suggested by [ 5 ] to get the better of the selectivity prejudice job. To gauge the net incomes appraisal, Bedi and Garg ab initio used a polynomial logit theoretical account to bring forth the selectivity rectification term. In the 2nd measure, Bedi and Garg estimated the net incomes equations and included the selectivity variables or the opposite of Mill ‘s ratio ( lambda ) to the equations. The coefficient on lambda measures the consequence of non-random screening single, while either the positive or negative mark indicates the nature of choice. The negative coefficient indicates that unseen variables that influence school pick are negatively correlated with unseen variables that determine net incomes. Bedi and Garg compared the consequences of OLS decompositions and two measure decompositions to demo the consequence of choice prejudice on the theoretical account. Despite Bedi and Garg utilizing the two measure method used in many surveies on school effectivity, I am concerned about the consequences of Bedi and Garg ‘s appraisals on selectivity variables and decompositions with selectivity prejudice. To verify the consequences, I re-estimated the polynomial logit equation utilizing Bedi and Garg ‘ sample informations set that derived from PUBPRIV.dta. I used the two-step technique proposed by [ 3 ] . [ 3 ] created selmlog as a faculty in STATA on choice prejudice rectification when choice is specified as a polynomial logit. I used Lee ‘s method in selmlog option, since Bedi and Garg used Lee ‘s two-step method to gauge the theoretical account. The Comparison of Selectivity Variable ( ) School Type Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) Bedi and Garg ‘s sample and Fahmi computation 2-5 t-stat. t-stat. Public -0.089 ( -0.310 ) 0.104 ( 0.370 ) Private Non Religious -0.848** ( -2.384 ) 0.895** ( 1.990 ) Private Islam 0.073 ( 0.120 ) 0.259 ( 0.330 ) Private Christian 0.031 ( 0.272 ) -0.666* ( -1.75 ) [ parity ] [ 1 ] * = P lt ; 0.1, ** = P lt ; 0.05, *** = P lt ; 0.01 Table 3 presents the comparing of selectivity variables. Using Bedi and Garg sample informations, the consequences show positive selectivity for public schools, private non-religious schools, and private Islam schools and negative choice into private Christian schools. The coefficient in private non-religious school and private Christian school equation are statistically important. This consequences contradict Bedi and Garg ‘s consequences. In Bedi and Garg ‘s appraisals, negative selectivity exists in public and private non spiritual groups, whereas positive selectivity nowadayss in private Islam and private Christian schools. The coefficient lambda is important merely in private non-religious school appraisal. The coefficient on the selectivity variable of public schools in Bedi and Garg ‘s is -0.089, whereas in my consequence it is 0.104. In private non spiritual schools and private Christian schools, Bedi and Garg ‘s are -0.848 and 0.031, while in my conse quences are 0.895 and -0.666. In private Islam appraisal, Bedi and Garg ‘s is 0.073 while in my consequence is 0.259. I present the full comparing of the two measure appraisals in Tables 9, 10, 11, and 12. Bedi and Garg point out that the negative coefficient on lambda was statistically important in private non spiritual school appraisal. Bedi and Garg used this determination to back up their statement that the strong negative choice consequence in private non-religious school reversed the public and private non-religious school advantage. However, utilizing Bedi and Garg ‘s sample informations set, I found that the mark of in private non spiritual is positive. The positive and important coefficient on lambda implies that a non-participant type in private non spiritual group will be given to hold higher net incomes. Non participant-type in private non spiritual schools are pupils from high socio economic sciences background. From the consequence of school screening in Table 3, pupils whose parents do non hold secondary instruction most likely attend private not spiritual schools. Therefore, the non participant type or the sub-sample of private non spiritual school are pupils whos e parents have high instruction or have high socio economic background. The negative mark on the selectivity variable in private Christian school implies that pupils from non-participant types in these group will be given to hold lower net incomes. Intuitively, pupils from low socio economic sciences backgrounds who study in private Christian schools will be given to hold lower net incomes. 4 Net incomes Decomposition Bedi and Garg used the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition to gauge net incomes differential between public school and private school alumnuss. Bedi and Garg used the double decomposition that included some non-discriminatory coefficient vectors to find the part of the spread in the forecasters. Harmonizing to [ 10 ] , the two fold decomposition can be written as ( 1 ) where the inferior refers to the public schools group and the inferior refers to private schools groups. is the the natural logarithm of single net incomes. is a vector of ascertained features and is a vector of coefficients on ascertained features. is the individuality matrix and is a diagonal matrix of weights. Now the double decomposition is ( 2 ) where is the net incomes difference. The first constituent, , is the net incomes derived function that is â€Å" explained † by group differences in the forecasters. The first difference is besides known as measure consequence. The 2nd portion, is the â€Å" unexplained † portion. is the differences caused by favoritism and unseen variables. Bedi and Garg follow [ 10 ] who used the average coefficients between the low and the high theoretical account or. Reimers believes that the favoritism in in labor market could impact the net incomes of either the bulk or minority group. Therefore, Reimers suggests that the diagonal of D ( matrix of weights ) should be 0.5 to avoid the incompatibility in decomposition consequence. I re-estimated the Blinder-Oaxaca decompositions on Bedi and Garg ‘s ascertained net incomes differential utilizing Oaxaca. Oaxaca[ 5 ]that created by [ 4 ] , is a STATA technique which allows gauging the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition net incomes derived functions in one bid[ 6 ]. I present the comparing of the reproduction on the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition in Tables 4 and 4. Table 6 presents the comparing of net incomes differential utilizing OLS appraisal as the appraisal does non include the selectivity variable. The consequences of Bedi and Garg and my appraisal utilizing Bedi and Garg sample informations are similar. Despite some differences in the 3rd denary values, the consequences could be considered as minimally different. The consequences suggest that Bedi and Garg ‘s computation and my technique, utilizing Jann ‘s Oaxaca, produced similar end products. However, Bedi and Garg do non supply the standard mistakes or statistical trials for the difference. Harmonizing to [ 4 ] , merely a few surveies on the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition are concerned about the issue of statistical illation. Jann argues that statistical illation in the decomposition consequences is necessary to bring forth equal reading. In general, my computations on Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition are similar with Bedi and Garg ‘s. However, there are some differences in the 3rd figure in some denary Numberss. For case, Bedi and Garg ‘s entire log net incomes derived function between public and private non spiritual is 0.316 whereas in my consequence the spread is 0.318. The consequences of Bedi and Garg ‘s net incomes decompositions should be treated with cautiousness because of two factors. First, Bedi and Garg do non supply the t-statistics or the standard mistakes of the difference. Second, the choice prejudice could hold appeared in the net incomes appraisals. Table 3 shows that the choice prejudice occurs in private non spiritual school and private Christian school appraisals. Therefore, the net incomes derived function in Table 4 on those two groups are biased. The Comparison of Earnings Differentials Between Public and Private Schools ( OLS ) Type of Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) a Fahmib 2-8 School Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Private Non Religious 0.316 0.162 0.154 0.318*** 0.163*** 0.155** ( 0.086 ) ( 0.054 ) ( 0.078 ) Private Islam 0.311 0.254 0.057 0.309*** 0.254*** 0.055 ( 0.117 ) ( 0.077 ) ( 0.113 ) Private Christian -0.140 -0.204 0.064 -0.142 -0.205* 0.064 ( 0.147 ) ( 0.116 ) ( 0.130 ) [ a ] Bedi and Garg do non supply standard mistakes or t-statistics [ B ] Standard mistakes are in parenthesis and heteroscedasticity consistent T = Observed net incomes derived function utilizing OLS E = Differentials due to differences in agencies utilizing OLS ( Explained ) U = Differentials due to differences in parametric quantities utilizing OLS ( Unexplained ) = P lt ; 0.01, ** = P lt ; 0.05, * = P lt ; 0.1 Table 4 shows that pupils who graduated from public schools earn 30.9 per centum more than their opposite number from private Islam schools. This grounds is strong as the net incomes derived function is statistically important at 1 percent degree of significance. The difference in the explained features contributes to about 82 per centum as the spread is 25.4 per centum. This spread is significance at 1 percent degree of significance. It means that the variables included in the theoretical account could explicate the 82 per centum of net incomes differential between public school and private Islam alumnuss. The difference in unexplained features are 5.5 per centum. However, this consequence is likely non true as the difference is non statistically important. [ ht ] Table 4: The Comparison of Earnings Differentials Between Public and Private Schools ( Two-Step ) Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) a Fahmib 2-8 Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Private Non Religious -0.754 0.236 -0.990 0.243** 0.151*** 0.09 ( 0.111 ) ( 0.055 ) ( 0.098 ) Private Islam 0.468 0.241 0.057 Sodium Sodium Sodium ( NA ) ( NA ) ( NA ) Private Christian -0.046 -0.226 0.180 -0.104 -0.197 0.093 ( 0.233 ) ( 0.123 ) ( 0.190 ) [ a ] Bedi and Garg do non supply standard mistakes or t-statistics [ B ] Standard mistakes are in parenthesis and heteroscedasticity consistent T = Adjusted net incomes differential utilizing Two-step E = Differentials due to differences in agencies utilizing Two-step ( Explained ) U = Differentials due to differences in parametric quantities utilizing Two-step ( Unexplained ) = P lt ; 0.01, ** = P lt ; 0.05, * = P lt ; 0.1 NA = Not Applicable In Table 3 the selectivity variables in private non spiritual and private Christian schools are statistically important. This grounds suggests that ordinary least squares ( OLS ) appraisal every bit good as the net incomes differential decomposition in these two groups would be biased. Table 4 nowadayss the net incomes decomposition utilizing the two-step method. In this tabular array, I do non supply the spread between public and private Islam schools since the coefficients on selectivity variables of both the groups are non statistically important. The net incomes derived function between public school and private non spiritual school is 24.3 per centum and is important at 0.05 degree. The spread is lower than the net incomes difference calculated by OLS appraisal. The net incomes decomposition on OLS appraisal between two groups are 31.8 per centum. Therefore, the inclusion of the selectivity variable in the theoretical account corrects the net incomes spread of 7.5 per centum. Si milar with the net incomes spread between public and private Islam schools, the explained or observed features in the theoretical account contribute to most of the spread. The part of measure effects or ascertained variables to the spread is about 60 per centum and is important at 0.01 significance degree. This part is higher than the OLS appraisal that merely contributes 52 per centum to the spread. The spread on the unseen variable are little and non statistically important. This consequence contradicts Bedi and Garg ‘s decision that the strong selectivity consequence reverses the public and private non-religious net incomes decompositions. I agree that the selectivity consequence corrects the net incomes spread but it does non change by reversal the advantages of public schools over the private non spiritual schools. The net incomes derived function of two-step appraisal between public and private Christian schools corrects the spread estimated by OLS. However, all the differences are non statistically important. Therefore, I can non reason what is the net incomes differences between the two schools since the groundss are likely non true. This undistinguished consequence on net incomes spread may be caused by the little figure of observations in the private Christian school group. The figure of observation in this group is 73 whereas the figure of observations in public school group is 767. 5 School Quality Indexs Despite my findings beliing Bedi and Garg ‘s decisions, the placeholders of school quality indexs may bias the cogency of Bedi and Garg ‘s net incomes theoretical account[ 7 ]. Alternatively of utilizing standard variables for school quality indexs such as teacher-student ratio, outgo per student, and degree of instruction of instructors, Bedi and Garg used three proxy variables: a dummy variable of whether the school has a soil floor ( DIRT FLOOR ) , the length of the school term ( MONTHS ) , and the figure of pupils in the category ( CLASS SIZE ) . The figure of observations that linked to the information of these standard variables for school quality are non equal[ 8 ]. I believe BG ‘s placeholders for school features ‘ variables could hold biased the consequences. Harmonizing to the manual book of IFLS1, DIRT FLOOR, MONTHS, and CLASS SIZE[ 9 ]supply information about the school features last accompanied by respondents. Therefore, some of the informations o n these proxy variables will be biased for respondents who attend senior secondary schools. The 1,194 from informations observation set in Bedi and Garg ‘s survey, there are 519 observations that are non junior secondary school. In fact, Bedi and Garg merely focus on the quality of junior secondary schools. 6 Missing Data Treatment I am besides concerned about the losing informations intervention in Bedi and Garg ‘s paper. There are two variables in net incomes equations that have losing values: CLAS_SIZ and MONTH. CLAS_SIZ has 72 losing values whereas MONTH has 55. Bedi and Garg used a traditional attack, the average permutation, to get the better of losing informations on those two variables. Hence, Bedi and Garg replaced the 72 losing values in CLAS_SIZ and MONTH by 36.40461 and by 9.412534. Harmonizing to [ 6 ] average imputation is simple to implement, nevertheless, it has some serious disadvantages. First, average permutation will diminish the discrepancy of the sample as the decrease of the sample will under gauge the true discrepancy. Second, the appraisal of non additive variables can non be estimated systematically. Third, average imputation will falsify the distribution of and form of the imputed variables. [ 1 ] points out that average permutation would be the worst attack when there is big in equality in losing informations for different variables. Another traditional attack that is alleged the list-wise or instance omission may be applied in this theoretical account to get the better of losing informations job. However, This attack may give indifferent appraisal if the MCAR premises are met. MCAR or Missing Wholly At Random appears when the chances of losing informations do non depend on any other observed or unobservable variable. However, MCAR seldom happens in household or family study. In the survey about the impact of childbearing on wellbeing utilizing IFLS informations, [ 7 ] argues that the premise of MCAR is non sensible in the survey. Mattei believes that the premise of losing informations mechanism or MAR ( Missing At Random ) is more sensible. To avoid inconsistent prejudices or equivocal consequences, I re-estimated Bedi and Garg ‘s school pick and net incomes derived function utilizing the multiple imputation by chained equations ( MICE ) . Multiple Imputation was originally developed by Rubin ( Rubin1976, Rubin1977 ) and implemented as MICE for general used by [ 12 ] . In STATA, MICE is implemented utilizing mvis or ice[ 10 ]. These STATA ado-files bundle were developed by [ 11 ] . Selectivity Variable in Mean Substitution and Multiple Imputation attack School Type Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) Bedi and Garg sample Average Substitution Mouses 2-5 t-stat. t-stat. Public -0.089 ( -0.310 ) -0.103 ( -0.360 ) Private Non Religious -0.848** ( -2.384 ) -0.896** ( -2.200 ) Private Islam 0.073 ( 0.120 ) -0.247 ( 0.320 ) Private Christian 0.031 ( 0.272 ) 0.650* ( -1.820 ) [ parity ] * = P lt ; 0.1, ** = P lt ; 0.05, *** = P lt ; 0.01 I created 5 transcripts of imputed sample informations utilizing ice bid. Then, I used mim bid to gauge the polynomial logit and two-step net incomes equation utilizing the five imputed information set. I compared the consequence of utilizing multiple imputation and Bedi and Garg ‘s average permutation in Tables 6, 5, and 6. Table 6 presents the comparing of the selectivity variable of Bedi and Garg ‘s and my appraisal. Then, Tables 5 and 6 compare the OLS and two-step net incomes derived function utilizing individual imputation ( average permutation ) and multiple imputation ( MICE ) . [ ht ] Table 5: The Comparison of Earnings Differentials Between Public and Private Schools ( OLS ) Type of Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) a Fahmib School Average Substitution Multiple Imputation 2-8 Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Private Non Religious 0.316 0.162 0.154 0.315*** 0.168*** 0.148** ( 0.034 ) ( 0.021 ) ( 0.030 ) Private Islam 0.311 0.254 0.057 0.314*** 0.251*** 0.055 ( 0.045 ) ( 0.077 ) ( 0.030 ) Private Christian -0.140 -0.204 0.064 -0.119*** -0.191*** 0.072 ( 0.056 ) ( 0.044 ) ( 0.046 ) [ a ] Bedi and Garg do non supply standard mistakes or t-statistics [ B ] Standard mistakes are in parenthesis and heteroscedasticity consistent T = Observed net incomes derived function utilizing OLS E = Differentials due to differences in agencies utilizing OLS ( Explained ) U = Differentials due to differences in parametric quantities utilizing OLS ( Unexplained ) = P lt ; 0.01, ** = P lt ; 0.05, * = P lt ; 0.1 Table 6 shows that about all selectivity variables in MICE appraisal have the same mark with Bedi and Garg ‘s appraisal, with merely the private Islam school group beliing to Bedi and Garg ‘s. The coefficient on selectivity variable in private Islam school is -0.247, whereas Bedi and Garg ‘s lambda in the same group is 0.073. The coefficient on lambda in private non-religious and private Christian schools are statistically important. Bedi and Garg point out that the negative coefficient on the selectivity variable in the private non-religious school group reverses the high quality of the public school group to their opposite number from private non spiritual schools. Bedi and Garg province that the net incomes spread between public schools and private non spiritual schools are reversed from 31.6 per centum to -75.4 per centum. However, in MICE appraisal the important negative coefficient on selectivity variable merely reduces the spread from 31.5 per centum to 24.6 per centum as public schools are still superior than private non spiritual school. Furthermore, the spread that is caused by unexplained or unobservable variables alternatively adds a positive 8.8 per centum to the entire spread. Table 5 shows that there is a similarity in net incomes derived function of the private Islam group in Bedi and Garg ‘s and my appraisal. The entire spread in MICE appraisal is 31.4 per centum whereas the explained spread is 25.1 per centum. The discernible variable adds 5.5 per centum to the entire spread, however the coefficient is non important. [ ht ] Table 6: The Comparison of Earnings Differentials Between Public and Private Schools ( Two-Step ) Bedi and Garg ( 2000 ) a Fahmib 2-8 Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Thymine Tocopherol Uracil Private Non Religious -0.754 0.236 -0.990 0.246*** 0.158*** 0.088*** ( 0.045 ) ( 0.022 ) ( 0.039 ) Private Islam 0.468 0.241 0.057 Sodium Sodium Sodium ( NA ) ( NA ) ( NA ) Private Christian -0.046 -0.226 0.180 -0.071 -0.180*** 0.109 ( 0.092 ) ( 0.047 ) ( 0.073 ) [ a ] Bedi and Garg do non supply standard mistakes or t-statistics [ B ] Standard mistakes are in parenthesis and heteroscedasticity consistent T = Observed net incomes differential utilizing two-step E = Differentials due to differences in agencies utilizing two-step ( Explained ) U = Differentials due to differences in parametric quantities utilizing two-step ( Unexplained ) ` = P lt ; 0.01, ** = P lt ; 0.05, * = P lt ; 0.1 7 Decision Using Bedi and Garg ‘s sample informations, new sample informations, Jann ‘s selmlog and Oaxaca, and multiple imputation attack, I found the contradictory consequence to Bedi2000. I found that the important negative choice variable in private non spiritual schools does non change by reversal the high quality of public schools over private non spiritual schools. I found grounds that public school alumnuss earn more than private school alumnuss. Bedi and Garg used the traditional average permutation to get the better of the losing information. This individual imputation attack is non appropriate and may bias the consequences. Using the up-to-date MICE ( multiple imputation by chained equations ) to handle the losing value, I found the public school alumnuss have higher net incomes than private non spiritual alumnuss. The negative coefficient on the selectivity variable does non change by reversal the high quality of public schools. The usage of some placeholders as school quality indexs in Bedi and Garg ‘s gaining theoretical account may besides bias the consequences. Bedi and Garg used three proxy variables that explain the status of last school attended. Since some of the respondents attended senior or higher instruction, hence, it may bias the cogency of the theoretical account. Mentions [ 1 ] Acock, A.C. Working with losing values. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67 ( 4 ) :1012 — 1028, 2005. [ 2 ] Bedi, Arjun S. and Garg, Ashish. The effectivity of private versus public schools: the instance of Indonesia. Journal of Development Economics, 61, issue 2:463-494, 2000. [ 3 ] Bourguignon, FranAA §ois and Fournier, Martin and Gurgand, Marc. Selection Bias Corrections Based on The Multinomial Logit Model: Monte Carlo Comparisons. Journal of Economic Surveys, 21 ( 1 ) :174-205, 2007. [ 4 ] Ben Jann. A Stata execution of the Blinder-Oaxaca decomposition. ETH Zurich Sociology Working Papers, 5, ETH Zurich, Chair of Sociology, 2008. [ 5 ] Lee, L. F. Generalized econometric theoretical accounts with selectivity. Econometrica, 51:507, 1983. [ 6 ] Little, R.J.A. and Rubin, D.B. Statistical analysis with losing informations. Wiley New York, 1987. [ 7 ] Mattei, A. Estimating and utilizing leaning mark in presence of losing background informations: an application to measure the impact of childbearing on wellbeing. Statistical Methods and Applications, 18 ( 2 ) :257 — 273, 2009. [ 8 ] Newhouse, David and Beegle, Kathleen. The consequence of school type on academic accomplishment – Evidence from Indonesia. Journal of Human Resources, 41 ( 3 ) :529-557, 2006. [ 9 ] Peterson, Christine E. Documentation for IFLS1-RR: Revised and Restructured 1993 Indonesian Family Life Survey Data, Wave 1. Technical study, RAND, 2000. [ 10 ] Cordelia W. Reimers. Labor Market Discrimination Against Hispanic and Black Men. The Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 65 ( No. 4 ) : pp. 570-579, 1983. [ 11 ] Royston, P. Multiple imputation of losing values: update. Stata Journal, 5 ( 2 ) :188 — 201, 2005. [ 12 ] Van Buuren, S. and Oudshoom, CGM. MICE: multivariate imputation by chained equations. web. inter. nl. net/users/S. new wave. Buuren/mi, 2000. [ 13 ] Williams, R. MFX2: Stata faculty to heighten mfx bid for obtaining fringy effects or snaps after appraisal. Statistical Software Components, 2006. Appendix How to cite Private Versus Public Indonesian Schools Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

Culture and Britain free essay sample

National identities are only one among the many identities that people can hold†, (Clarke,2009, p212). The key question this statement is asking is how people perceive themselves and how others perceive them as British. This highlights the main area of this assignment, what is Britishness and who is perceived as British? And also to what extent does British culture have ‘shared values’, ideas and ways of life in today’s society and is it better to talk of many cultures when discussing British culture. To be British implies sharing a place of residence, a place to call your country; it’s not entirely about being born in Britain or even the British flag. Many people argue that being British has its own characteristics in comparison to being French or Italian etc. , and this is true. Although residents of Britain will all have different personalities and identities according to their background, their Britishness will distinguish that they are British people and this forms the basis of a national identity and explains British culture. If you were to ask residents of Britain to describe themselves, they will do so in many different ways, and will always reference back to family and friends, all of which play a part in defining a British identity. Identities are socially constructed throughout life and each individual will have their own unique identity so therefore not every person in Britain will have the same mundane identity. Therefore to identify an overall national identity, Britain over time has grew to become a very modern and diverse society and also the political desire to define what Britishness is today (Clarke, 2009, p209-214). In the United Kingdom, national identity and citizenship do not always mean the same thing†, this information is provided by the Home office, (Home office cited in Clarke, 2009, p210). This statement gives a contemporary view of the British identity and helps define what exactly Britishness is. This statement then goes on and talks about how people from different countries in Great Britain describe themselves in comparison to British people. An example of this is the Scottish and Welsh state they have a Scottish and Welsh nationality but a British citizenship. Whereas people from Northern Ireland tend to describe their identity depending on which political party they support and also their cultural allegiances, as they may choose to state they are Irish, British or even both. In comparison to British people will tend to state they have a British identity and citizenship, not half and half like people from other parts of Great Britain. Alternatively, the social scientist Vron Ware stated that â€Å"Britain is a composite nation, a patchwork of anomalies, mistakes and inconsistencies. It has a standing army but not a football team. † (Vron Ware cited in Clarke, 2009 p210). It then goes on to saying how Britain has an unequal global order and copies off other countries such as Europe and United States by history and geography. This statement is very different from the above statement from the Home Office. This statement works off the idea that to be British you have to support a certain football team and have a certain language, but this isn’t always correct, people who live in Britain are British. Many people in Britain will have different cultures which include different rituals etc, to other individuals also being British. Both statements have common issues running through them, but both are very different also. The Home Office document mainly talks about how a British citizenship can be separate from a national identity, meaning that a person can live in Britain but have an African citizenship as that is their place of birth etc. Having a national identity is only one identity in which a person may hold, for instance a person may be very religious and hold a strong catholic identity. As stated above, to be British and have a British identity means you live in Britain, but as an individual you can also have many identities and many people in Britain will have, as society nowadays is very diverse. Moving on from the above, Britishness as stated is a place of residency, but along with that an individual’s identity in that residence will be hugely diverse. For instance, if you were a resident in Ireland, they tend to all have in common the same artistic or aesthetic cultural products such as Irish music and art and so on. Whereas in Britain, they isn’t a common cultural product, as each individual has a different identity whether this be down to religion or characteristics, and because of this, this is why many people state that when talking about Britishness, you should talk of cultures, not a culture of its own, this is what social scientists call ‘high culture’ (Clarke, 2009 p219). The other meaning of culture is treating culture as part of everyday life which includes the habits, practices and values of the life we live in Britain. Many cultural theorists and the historian Raymond Williams (1958) described being ‘selective tradition’ as celebrating works and traditions set by your citizenship such as in Britain, residents should celebrate works done by Shakespeare and so on. Both meanings of culture as seen above are very different, some residents can be either, it is their choice and in this diverse society will choose to do so. Britishness is defined not on ethnic or exclusive grounds†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Blunkett, 2004 p4, cited in Clarke, 2009 p221). Blunkett explains how Britishness is shared through values and diversity. Another statement which also explains Britishness in terms of shared values is explained by Phillips (2007) for example â€Å"†¦Britishness, lies in a way of living together characterised by tolerance, egalitarianism, respec t for dignity of the individual and a powerful tradition of dissent† (Phillips, 2007, p42 cited in Clarke 2009, p222-223). Both of these statements explain how everyday life in Britain as a resident is diverse in terms of living and also that residents respect the law and also each other’s personal identity. Obviously both statements can be argued against such as crime rates etc and how migration of new residents have a main cause of British culture not being British culture no more as stated by Seimon Glynn, Chairman of Gwynedd County council’s housing committee in an interview he revealed that with new migrants entering Britain is ‘It makes us even poorer and it is absolutely no use to the community’ (cited in Clarke, 2009 p167). But in unison this is how Britishness is perceived to others. Both Plunkett and Phillips main argument is that Britishness is open to people of all backgrounds and not being constructed against by their ethnicity or exclusive grounds. In Britain residents live in an imagined community as Benedict Anderson (1983) stated, he believes that nations have to be constructed with a set of connections or affinities between the members of the nation and the invention of a shared history that links them. Anderson (1983) uses the word ‘we’ to describe Britishness and how ‘we’ interact with each other in society, as speaking of Britain as a whole, gives an imagined view that Britishness is shared and that ‘we’ share the same identity and culture. But in reality, to be British you do not have to have the same identity or cultural views to have the same citizenship. To summarise the above points, it is obvious that Britishness has changed from Shakespeare times to now massively. Britishness is now very diverse in terms of culture and views in many areas such as political and ethnicity. To describe British culture, you can selectively use certain topics such as arts and literature but it isn’t a way of life so not every resident will have the same values but residents of Britain will all share the same behaviour traits and follow the same laws and so on. Also, residents in Britain will have a British identity and also underlying identities in regards to their practices, religion and so on. Along with a person’s identity, you also have citizenship. To be British doesn’t mean you have to share the same taste in music and enjoy the same activities, to be British is a place of residency and to follow the same rules set by the country to be a part of it. Therefore, when talking of the British culture, is it better to talk of cultures? This is will be debated for a very long time, as every resident living in Britain has shared values and residency.

Making friends free essay sample

Making friends is one of the most crucial factors in our life. You need to learn how to read people and their personalities. You dont want people to think that youre not interesting, or that youre way to interesting. Here are three ways that can help you make friends easier. When you first meet a person, you have to figure out how your going to approach that person and introduce yourself , and if you would like to be friends with that person.If your in the work place you would naturally approach them and talk to them bout sports or maybe their hobbies. If outside of the work place, you could casually ask about their day or weekend. You need to continue to make small talk and things will then go naturally. The next step would be to figure out a way to keep running into that person. We will write a custom essay sample on Making friends or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Even if you left them with a great first impression, Its hard to call them a friend if you dont keep visiting with them. Friendships are built on quality time spent together.The last thing you must do is meet up with them out of work. Meet at a local bar, exchange contact information such as social networking, phone numbers and addresses. Meeting all the time do to different activities creates quality bonds and new memories, but most Importantly creates new friendships. Furthermore humans need friendships. If you follow my three simple steps of creating friendships by approaching people and Introducing yourself, making yourself available for small talk and lastly by trading contact Information. You will never be with out a friend.

gattaca essays

gattaca essays Genetically, Vincent is supposed to be weak, yet his strength of character is the key to the story. DISCUSS The film Gattaca portrays the not to distant future, where a society has become overwhelmed by a new form of discrimination, genoism. Individuals entire futures are determined by their genetic makeup. Those who have been conceived naturally are labelled as faith births, invalids and looked down upon by society. Whereas those who are genetically engineered to perfection before birth become the elite class who are termed valid in which success is almost guaranteed. However, Vincent refuses to accept the limitations society has placed on his life. He refuses to give in to the inevitable. Vincent wages his own personal fight against societys mores to achieve his dream and show that anything is possible. From a young age Vincent is conveyed as weak and almost chronically ill. Conceived in love has a greater chance of happiness. They dont say that anymore. Those who are not manufactured by IVF but made through love are subjected to a second class life from birth. Invalids, as they are known, belong to a new under class. My destiny was mapped out before meall my flaws, predispositions and susceptibilities - most untreatable to this day. Only minutes old, the date and cause of my death was already known. Throughout Vincents early years we are shown the discrimination he sarcomas to from his own family as well as society. Vincents own father Antonio sees Vincent as weak and unworthy of his name Anton so instead calls him Vincent. Gates and opportunities are continuously slammed shut in Vincents face. There is constant favouritism shown towards Vincents genetically superior brother Anton. Vincents parents see him as a failure and give up on him. ...

Whats the SAT Out Of

What's the SAT Out Of SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Every year nearly 2 million students take the SAT, but what's it out of? I'll answer this question and more in this article. Scoring for the SAT The SAT isout of 1600 points.There aretwo sections Math and Evidence-Based Reading and Writing (Reading and Writing are two tests, but together make up one section). Each section isscored from 200 to 800, so the overall scores range from 400 to 1600. Note that from 2005-2016 the SAT was scored out of 2400 (there were separate Reading and Writing sections with their own scores out of 800). For more on the old score scale and the 2016 redesing, check out ourComplete Guide to the New SAT in 2016. What Should You Do With This Information? You should try to figure out what your target score within this range should be.Don't just aim for a 1600.That is notnecessary for every student.Your target score should be based on what school you hope to attend. Find out that school’s SAT 25th/75th percentile score by searching â€Å"[College Name] SAT† in Google. The 25th percentile score signifies that 25% of accepted applicants score at or below that score. The 75th percentile score means that 75% of accepted applicants score at or below that score (so 25% of applicants scored higher). To have the best chance of being admitted, you should aim for a score at or above the 75th percentile score. For a more in-depth explanation of figuring out what your target score should be, read What is a good SAT score? A bad SAT score? An excellent SAT score?. What’s Next? Trying to raise your SAT score? Check outour ultimate study guide. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school. Thinking about getting a job while in high school? Check out our guide to the 8 best jobs for teensand learn how to find yours! Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points?We've written a guide about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

English Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 72

English - Essay Example To be specific, the villagers never try to realize that their belief in ‘the lottery’ is false. Instead, the blindly accept the tradition and happen to be the victims of the same. The speaker in the work by Shirley Jackson states that, â€Å"Soon the men began to gather, surveying their own children, speaking of planting and rain, tractors and taxes† (6). Besides, the lottery is used as a tool to sustain orthodoxy, but it brutally punishes individuals. Jackson Bill knows that lottery is not a fortune to his family. Still, he never tries to act against this inhuman custom. As the community members are supposed to follow the orthodoxy, one cannot expect the protagonist (say, Jackson Bill) to act against the same. S.T. Joshi opines that, â€Å"Certainly there is nothing supernatural about â€Å"The Lottery† (1948), whose impact rests on the very possibility of its occurrence† (13). From a different angle of view, the author makes use of the helpless cha racters to expose the inhuman aspects of orthodoxy. On the other side, the villagers still believe that sacrifice can result in fortune (say, good harvest). The author makes use of Tessie as the tool to proclaim the need to discard orthodoxy. Tessie is portrayed as the victim of orthodoxy, but she does not try to subdue to the same. Instead, she tries to express her views on forced human sacrifice. Still, this does not change the villagers’ attitude because their belief is blind. They never try to go beyond orthodoxy because their community never allows it. James Hugh Toner makes clear that, â€Å"By custom, others in the family join in to kill the lottery â€Å"winner†Ã¢â‚¬  (9). Bill knows that he cannot save his wife. Still, he does not try to save his wife. On the other side, Tessie tries to educate the villagers on their inhuman orthodoxy, but for no use. So, the author expects that Tessie’s fate will create awareness among the mass on the need to discard inhuman rituals

(CHILDREN'S RIGHT ) My Course is Iin EDUCATION Essay

(CHILDREN'S RIGHT ) My Course is Iin EDUCATION - Essay Example However, different International Conventions and Ugandan government have taken severe steps to prevent the unlawful induction of children in any kind of work either hazardous or un-hazardous that may have its adverse affects on their physical, mental and academic progress. These Conventions have tried their level best to create awareness among the different communities present in Uganda that child labor is a crime and people should refrain sending their children for any sort of economical activity. However, it is expected that with the passage of time and by creating awareness in the minds of Ugandan people, the government and the international agencies will overcome the problem of Child labor in Uganda for their own prosperity and development of the society which is highly important for them. ‘Child labor and poverty are inevitably bound together and if you continue to use the labor of children as the treatment for the social disease of poverty, you will have both poverty and child labor to the end of time.’- Grace Abbott Uganda is faced with severe poverty along with a low literacy rate. Poverty is the main cause of defragmenting the socioeconomic structure of any country. As a result, people in Uganda compel their children to earn and contribute with their families in order to sustain their living standards. Due to this reason, we can clearly observe a high percentage of children working under hazardous conditions to meet their basic needs (http://childvoice.jinja.eu/en/child-labor-in-uganda.). Child labor is an unlawful and immoral induction of young children which deprives them of better living conditions, right of education and the right of being known as the ‘most fragile humans’ in the world. Child can be defined as a human who falls between the ages of birth and youth. In legal terms a child is defined as a minor who is dependent on his caretakers for living and

Price Elascity of Demand Essay Example for Free

Price Elascity of Demand Essay Price Elascity of Demand BY vtc901ee The price elasticity of demand (PED) is a measure of how much the quantity demanded of a good responds to a change in price of the good (Mankiw 2007, p. 90). It is a form of measure to determine how willing consumers are to move away from the good as the price of the good rises. Most of the time, there are factors that determines the PED, such as availability of close substitutes, necessities versus luxuries, definition of the market and time horizon. In order to calculate the PED, a formula is calculated using the percentage change in the quantity demanded divided y the percentage change in the price. Elastic demand that has the coefficient of greater than 1 suggests that there would be a significant change in quantity demanded when there is a little change in price while inelastic demand has a coefficient of less than one, which has a little change in quantity demanded even when there is a significant change in price. Unitary demand occurs when there is a coefficient of exactly one and there is an exact change in quantity demanded in proportion to the change in price (Bolotta et al. 2002). There are two ways to calculate the PED. Firstly, it is called the point method or also nown as geometrical method (DEISU 2008). Under this method, we measure the elasticity of demand at any point of a demand curve using the formula, Elasticity at any point on the straight line can be calculated using the point method provided that the demand line is linear. The better way to calculate the PED is by using the midpoint method, which is to calculate the PED between two points on a demand curve by averaging the 2 initial and final points chosen. The midpoint approach averages the prices and quantities demanded, thus arriving at an average elasticity estimate for the range of values covered on the demand curve. The formula is, The product that is chosen to explain the theory of PED is rice. Rice is one of the perfect examples of inelastic demand applied in todays world, especially in Malaysia. There was an interesting finding made by Nik Mustapha and other researchers, where they find that rice tends to be inelastic, showing that rice has already occupied a special position in Malaysian diet as it is a staple food among the population (FEMI-JPM 2008). Other countries in Asia are also affected by the demand for rice. In Thailand, the export price elasticity of demand for rice is ranged -1. 2 and -1. 9, which shows that it is an inelastic demand (FEMI-JPM 2008). The graph would be similar to Figure 3, whereby it has a steeper slope. This indicates that the consumer would pay at almost any price set in the market for the good as it is a necessity in food for them. The PED of the rice is important in terms of their pricing decisions as the total revenue can change along the demand curve, and this in return depends on the PED. In this case, rice is considered to be inelastic, and for all inelastic demands, an increase in price will have an increase in total revenue (Mankiw 2007, p. 95). However, this is also crucial in determining the maximum profit that can be made using the PED. If all the farmers have good harvest, a large drop in price is necessary to encourage consumers to use the additional grain (Ingrimayne. com) this will cause the farmers income to decrease, thus it is important to know the PED of the rice. For instance, if the quantity of rice increases by 20%, it means that there could be a decrease of price by 40%. In explaining on how the tax being imposed by the government can affects the production of rice, a fully labelled market diagram for rice (inelastic demand) is illustrated. Consumer surplus is the extra amount consumers are willing to pay from the ctual price whereas producer surplus is the amount sellers are paid for a good minus the sellers cost of providing it (Mankiw 2007, pp. 139-144). Before the government impose tax on rice, consumer surplus and producer surplus are determined by equilibrium of price in the market. By imposing the tax on rice, the quantity of rice sold falls and there is a wedge between the price that buyers pay and the price that sellers receive. Both surpluses are reduced because there is tax revenue imposed by the government, resulting in a deadweight loss, a condition where a fall in surplus exceeds tax revenue, a form of market distortion (Mankiw 007, p. 162). These tax revenues are classified as government revenue. Government revenue may differ depending on the size of the tax, as different tax size generates different tax revenue. Since an inelastic demand decreases the quantity produced by a little, it can be assumed that the deadweight loss is also smaller, causing the tax revenue to increase slightly, as shown in Figure 10. Next, we will discuss the tax burden of the production of rice. Tax incidence is the distribution of tax burden among the participants in the market. In the rice market, taxes imposed on the buyers and the sellers are the same no matter whether the tax s charged on buyers or sellers, but the only difference is that who will send the money to the government (Mankiw 2007, pp. 24-127). To prove that, the following are the examples when a tax is charged on either buyers or sellers: The overall social welfare will be clearly shown once the effects of tax have on the quantity and price of the product, as the change in the total welfare decreases the consumer surplus and producer surplus, and usually exceeds the tax revenue raised maximised as there is deadweight loss incurred in the process of taxation, causing the quantity of goods decrease

But you are not jeffmute? Irelands Image Abroad :: Essays Papers

'But you are not jeffmute?' Ireland's Image Abroad In "Ireland at the Bar" James Joyce is concerned with the image of Ireland in the eyes of the Britain and the role of the English media in Imperialism. The essay recounts the details of the trial for murder of Myles Joyce, accused of killing John Joyce [not a relation of his], his wife, mother and children on the 17th of August 1882 in Maamtrasna in Connemara. Myles Joyce was one of four or five peasants, "all of them members of the ancient tribe of the Joyces", arrested for the murder of their neighbour. Myles was the eldest of them, at sixty years of age, and belonged to a generation of Irish people who only spoke Irish. The patriarch was tried in English, a language he didn’t understand, and "Myles Joyce was convicted after the jury met for six minutes." (Flood, 883) and hanged in December 1882 at Galway jail. Myles Joyce was given the services of an interpreter as Joyce describes. "On the one hand there was the officious interpreter, on the other the patriarch of the miserable tribe who, unused to civic customs, seemed quite bewildered by all the legal ceremonies."(145) The Magistrate instructed the interpreter to ask the accused if he saw the woman on the morning in question, "the old man broke out into intricate explanations, gesticulating, appealing to the other accused, to heaven. Then, exhausted by the effort, he fell silent."(145) The interpreter answered to the magistrate "He says no, your worship."(145) The interpreter does an injustice to Myles Joyce by rendering the passionate protestations of the accused into monosyllabic answers. For Joyce, however, the case of Myles Joyce represents a greater issue concerning Irish Identity. He points out: The figure of the bewildered old man, left over from a culture which is not ours, a deaf-mute before his judge, is a symbol of the Irish nation at the bar of public opinion. Like him, Ireland cannot appeal to the modern conscience of England or abroad. The English newspapers act as interpreters between Ireland and the English electorate. (146) After he had been executed, Myles Joyce was considered to have been wrongfully accused of the murders. In fact, his co-accused admitted their part and exonerated Myles of any wrongdoing. But respective governments in Britain who refused to ever have a proper enquiry into this miscarriage of justice overlooked this.

Bridging Deontological and Teleological Ethical Perspectives

Buddhism espouses the concept of â€Å"karma† which refers to the chains of causes and events in the universe (Reichenbach, p. 137). A person who has experienced something good in life is said to have good karma whereas the opposite is true for the person who has experienced something bad. In a way, karma serves as the law of moral causation precisely because moral and immoral acts result to good and bad consequences, respectively. Thus, doing something good can ultimately lead to a morally sound consequence whereas doing something bad can eventually lead to an immoral effect.In any case, the â€Å"something† in â€Å"doing something† can be either right or wrong in itself. Similarly, the â€Å"something† in â€Å"doing something† can also be either right or wrong with respect to its consequences. Taking the Buddhist concept of karma and using it within the context of ethics, the result is an understanding of the connection between karma, deontologi cal and teleological ethics. For the most part, deontological ethics is a branch of ethics that deals with the moral worth of actions.That is, the moral worth of something depends on the rightness or wrongness of the act that causes it. For instance, aborting an unborn fetus in order to save the mother is morally wrong essentially because abortion kills a living being and is, therefore, wrong in the first place. In deontological ethics, the rightness or wrongness of an act is fundamental in determining whether an action is ethical or unethical, which implies that the basis for saying whether an act is moral or immoral is the act itself.Connecting that thought with the Buddhist concept of karma, the totality of all the chains of causes and effects in the world is the summation of all actions that are inherently good or evil regardless of their consequences. As a result, the foundation of the Buddhist concept of karma when viewed from a deontological ethical perspective is the action itself no matter what the consequence may be. While deontological ethics treats actions and their consequences separately when identifying the moral worth of actions, it does not mean however that actions and their consequences are inherently separate.Rather, they remain tied insofar as they remain causes and effects to one another. On the other hand, teleological ethics is primarily concerned with the consequences of actions in determining their moral worth, which is why most teleological ethical theories are also called consequentialist ethical theories. The moral worth of an action can be gauged in terms of the consequences it leads to. For instance, aborting a child may save the mother, thereby making the act of abortion in the specific circumstance morally permissible and ethical at the same time.So long as the consequences are favorable, an action remains moral as far as teleological ethical theory is concerned. With that in mind, the Buddhist concept of karma sits comfortably with teleological ethics. That is because karma involves both causes and effects; no action can be determined as either right or wrong if there is no consideration for the consequences it leads to. Taken as a whole, there is strong reason to believe that karma shares several revealing characteristics with the philosophical formulations of both deontological and teleological ethical theories.In most case, teleological and deontological ethical theories are often placed on extreme poles primarily because each treats the moral worth of action in distinct ways. However, the Buddhist concept of karma can provide a common ground for both ethical theories at least in terms of one thing—the causation of events in the universe. Buddhist Karma and Deontology Immanuel Kant is one of the foremost philosophers who favored deontology throughout his career. Kant once argued that human beings should not be treated as means to an end but as the ends themselves (Sokoloff, p.770). In other wor ds, a person should not use another person as a way for him to achieve his desires. Rather, that person ought to treat the other person with respect and dignity precisely because the welfare of other persons should be at the helm of every human pursuit. That idea closely resembles the â€Å"golden rule† which proposes that a person should act towards other people in the way that he expects himself to be treated by others. Deontological ethics, therefore, prescribes that actions are morally right because of their morally right nature.Given the fact that karma in general is the totality of all causes and effects in the universe, it can also be said as the totality of all the interactions among human beings with other fellow human beings. Although karma is not entirely limited to such an interpretation, it nevertheless accepts the fact that interpersonal interaction—apart from humanity’s interaction with the surrounding environment—can be the respective caus es of certain effects and effects of certain causes.A society can be composed of individuals treating one another as means to an end, as ends themselves or a combination thereof. Take all societies in the world and the picture becomes broader yet clearer. In a way, interpersonal interaction has a substantial role in the general karma of all things. There are countless numbers of individuals from across the world taking part in the activities that occur on a daily basis. Somewhere in North Korea, there may be a person who is morally condemned for constantly threatening neighboring countries through the testing of potentially dangerous nuclear armaments.Somewhere in the United States, a policeman avoids offers of bribe due to the belief that the act of bribing in itself is morally wrong even though the money given can be enough to sustain the officer’s family’s financial needs for another month. Somewhere in Saudi Arabia, a man pays respect to his elders by making them h appy through gifts because he believes that his elders are human beings who deserve all the happiness in the world just like anybody else. These interactions and all the rest happening in the world as we speak comprise a portion of the general karma of things.Performing actions that are inherently ethical or unethical can influence the way in which karma takes places. The favor may be returned or not. Either way, both ethical and unethical actions play a role in the chains of causes and effects in the universe. Buddhist Karma and Teleology The key principle in teleological ethical theory is the idea that an action is morally right or wrong depending on its consequences. One version of that idea is utilitarianism which grants that an action is good if it leads to the greatest benefit of the greatest number (Freeman, p.313). Conversely, a person’s actions or decisions are morally right if it actually promotes the welfare of the wide majority of people involved or concerned in t he situation. On the other hand, an action is wrong if it does the exact opposite, which is either to promote the welfare of the few or to cause harm to the majority. Teleological ethics, therefore, implies that the consequences of an action largely determine its moral worth. In the case of utilitarianism, determining the moral worth of an action is possible if the consequences can be quantified.If teleological ethics depends on the consequences of actions, it will also naturally involve the relationship between the cause and effect of any given circumstance. In effect, good karma can be characterized as karma resulting from the good consequences of an individual’s actions or decisions. On the other hand, bad karma can be characterized as karma resulting from the bad consequences of a person’s acts. In both cases, there is the presumption that there are causes in the same way as there are effects.That presumption underscores the principle that the relationship between causes and effects significantly determines not only the rightness or wrongness of actions but also their good and bad valuations in terms of Buddhist karma. When taken from the broadest perspective of teleological ethics, karma can be seen occurring in almost every part of the globe. A president of a certain first-world country deciding to aid people living in impoverished countries through foreign aid can certainly give good consequences to an immense number of people.In effect, the benefits these people will be receiving through the aid can be said as part of their good karma. On the other hand, the praises from the international community and the appreciation of the people at the receiving end of the foreign aid can also be said as part of the good karma for the president. Another example is when one nation decides to declare war on another distant nation. The results can be devastating, the most significant of which is the possible loss of countless lives.For both sides partici pating in the war, the bad karma can be easily seen not only for the people who lived to witness and experience firsthand the atrocities of the war but also for the generations that will follow. Karma interpreted in the context of teleological ethics can also refer to ordinary events on a smaller scale. A person taking the law into his own hands by murdering another person for vengeance will be jailed. Consequently, the jailing of the murder convict can be said as a form of bad karma. A person gaining a new friend by sharing the table to another stranger in the public library can be said as good karma.At any rate, the consequences of our actions determine our actions’ moral worth, and it is from the relationship between the consequences and the actions where Buddhist karma can be taken from. Deontology’s Karma versus Teleology’s Karma What are the differences between deontology’s karma and teleology’s karma? For the most part, it can be said that b oth deontological and teleological ethics attempt to categorize moral worth of actions, the former in terms of the nature of the actions and the latter in terms of their consequences.Although the difference largely rests on what to use as the basis for the moral worth of an action, the undeniable similarity is that both ethical theories touch the Buddhist concept of karma. At the least, the concept of karma provides the common ground for the ethical theories that are commonly labeled as anti-thesis to one another. Since karma presupposes causes and effects, it must also deal with the relationships that exist between them.On one hand, the relationship can be viewed in terms of the â€Å"cause† determining its own moral worth independently from the â€Å"effect†. On the other hand, the relationship can also be viewed in terms of the â€Å"effect† determining the moral worth of the â€Å"cause†. In both instances, the causes naturally lead to their effects e ven though the basis for identifying their moral worth differs. As Kaufman writes, karma is â€Å"not only about the causes of an effect insomuch as it is not only about the effects of a cause in any given circumstance.Rather, it is about the marriage of the two† (Kaufman, p. 16). This inseparability of the cause from the effect—or vice versa—in terms of Buddhist karma is the reason why it can be said that deontological and teleological ethics are looking at the same coin only focusing on different sides, so to speak. They look at the same relationships although each one concentrates on a distinct angle—deontology on the cause and teleology on the effect. Karma and General Ethics Damien Keown writes that karma â€Å"inevitably concerns a person’s character† (Keown, p.331). That is because a person’s character can influence his actions and decisions as well as the effects of such actions and decisions. In effect, the chains of universa l causes and effects involve the overall moral characters of all people. Karma becomes intertwined, as it does in fact, with the ethical inclinations of individuals. In general, ethics is concerned with the rightness or wrongness of things. It offers a wide array of ethical precepts which people are expected to follow in order to live morally upright lives.Karma, on the other hand, implies a person’s capacity to make his own decisions and, therefore, his capacity to self-determination as opposed to abiding by a predetermined fate. Taken together, ethics provides options for individuals to fully realize the things that they want to achieve. Ethics provides frameworks for people to use in order to make decisions and enact them based on what is morally permissible. Keeping in line with what is morally permissible is said to lead to good karma while deviating from what is moral can lead to bad karma.Deontological and teleological ethics are just two of the ethical doctrines that individuals can follow in order to attain a favorable karma. Although deontological and teleological ethics are both unique to the point that they contradict one another in terms of what to use as basis for determining the moral worth of actions, they also come into terms within the context of the Buddhist karma. They share the common belief in the causation of things; everything happens for a reason. Either the cause in itself is the reason for the act’s moral worth or the effect determines the moral worth of the action.Works Cited Freeman, Samuel. â€Å"Utilitarianism, Deontology, and the Priority of Right. † Philosophy and Public Affairs 23. 4 (1994): 313-49. Kaufman, Whitley R. P. â€Å"Karma, Rebirth, and the Problem of Evil. † Philosophy East and West 55. 1 (2005): 15-32. Keown, Damien. â€Å"Karma, Character, and Consequentialism. † The Journal of Religious Ethics 24. 2 (1996): 329-50. Reichenbach, Bruce R. â€Å"Karma, Causation, and Divine Inter vention. † Philosophy East and West 39. 2 (1989): 135-49. Sokoloff, William W. â€Å"Kant and the Paradox of Respect. † American Journal of Political Science 45. 4 (2001): 768-79.

Challenges of Management Essay

Management is an important organ of the modern society. The decisions of management in government, business and other organizations constitute a powerful social force which is vital to the effective functioning of the contemporary society. Management is that organ of the society which is given the responsibility of making the productive use of resources for the betterment of the society. The term ‘management’ is also used to represent an organized body of knowledge which enables the ambitious executives to acquire and master the skills needed to discharge their responsibilities effectively. This body of knowledge should not be taken as static. It should be studied in the light of socio-economic, political, educational and other changes. These changes make it appropriate (even mandatory) to re-examine the role of modem managers. Modern managers have the responsibility to devise the management practices to meet the new challenges and make use of the opportunities for growth of the organization. Change is an important feature of modern organizations. Significant changes take place every day in social, technological, political and other aspects of modern world. However, the recent spate of changes in the economies of the world caused, by creation of World Trade Organization (WTO), economic liberalization and trend towards globalization of economies have brought many opportunities and threats for the modern organizations. No manager can afford to ignore such changes; rather he has to make use of them to his advantage. In other words, he has no option, but to accept the challenges. To be successful, the manager must try to forecast the changes because of the following reasons: i) The changes in business environment will have a considerable impact on the theory and practice of management. Experience that once provided a sense of security to preceding generations of managers may be of little comfort to future managers. New problems will arise which may render the old principles and practices of management obsolete and call for evolving new theories and practices. (ii) The effective handling of change calls for latest information and new skills on the part of managers. Those who prepare themselves for challenges in the future will find many opportunities for growth and expansion of their business. During the last two decades, there has been a phenomenal growth in Size and complexity of organizations in every field, be it Government, religious, educational, medical, military or business. In fact, an increasing proportion of all our activities occurs within the boundaries of these complex organizations and in that sense, we have become truly a ‘organizational society’. Management concepts and practices, organization structure and behavior have responded to these changing influences. This chapter aims at sketching out a framework for looking at the future of management of organizations and analyses the important forces at work in this regard. The important areas which would create challenges for the management are as follows: 1. Social environment. 2. Economic environment. 3. Technological environment. 4. Physical environment. 5. Political environment. 6. International environment. The trends of these environments and their relevance for the future manager are discussed below. Population Explosion. Population of our country and of the world is increasing rapidly. This will require new jobs, more product’s, new methods of production and distribution and new modes of living. The population mix will also change. There will be an increase in the proportion of older people due to increase in the average life span. This will affect the demand for products of many organizations. b. Educational Level. The governments of various countries have been taking steps to eradicate illiteracy and to increase the educational level of their citizens. Educated consumers and workers will create very tough tasks for the organizations in future. It would become really difficult to satisfy enlightened consumers whose behavior would not be predictable. The workers will be better organized and compel the organizations to safeguard their interests and to allow them to have say in their management. c. Leisure Time. People will have more leisure time because of reduced working hours, increased automation and quick means of traffic and communication. The effects of this trend are many and varied. For some people, more leisure time means higher spending in pursuits of leisure which will encourage the growth of tourism, fast food and entertainment industries. For others, it means an opportunity for earning more by doing some part-time jobs. d. Public Opinion. Public Opinion about business will shape the attitudes of future managers. If the people have distrust in the market system, they will prefer governed controls to free competition. The opinion is going to be very complex because of changes in values of society, increased international competition, rise of consumerism use of industrial robots, etc. . Changes in Economic Environment (Globalization and Liberalization) the degree of resource exploitation will have a direct bearing on the economic environment and through this on the business. As is obvious from the present trends, physical environment will not remain confined to land only, but would extend to oceans and space also. In future, oceans will be developed via farming and mining operations; and space flights and missions will concentrate on studying causes of changes in atmospheric conditions and finding reserves of natural resources in land and water. Economic conditions in India are changing at a fast speed because of Government’s policy of liberalization of industrial licensing and foreign direct investment and also the creation of World Trade Organization (WTO). There is now increased emphasis on the globalization of economy. The Indian managers will have opportunities of raising capital from foreign markets, distribute their products internationally and start industries abroad. Business competition will no†¢ longer be restricted to national boundaries. It will become international because of growth of multinational corporations. Big organizations will continue growing through diversifications and take-overs. Despite growth of giant corporations, opportunities for small business will not be reduced. Small firms will be needed to serve as feeder to large ones and to supply non-standardized goods. All these will increase the complexity of decisions in the future. 3. Changes in Technological Environment Technological changes will affect management in the future in terms of heavy investment in technology, understanding the principles of production and their consistent application, and effects of technology on markets. In future, all big organizations will be actively engaged in technological forecasting. Automation and information technology will assume new proportions as discussed below: (a) Automation. Automation has created several problems. Jobs have become routinized and unchallenging. Introduction of industrial robots has created a feeling of job insecurity among workers. Once industrial robots take over from workers, the primary task of the workers would be to set up production runs, to program the robots and to run them under computer control. Thus, future organizations will have highly automated man-machine systems. (b) Information Technology. There will be remarkable impact of computerized information systems on management. Firstly, there will be Use of electronic equipment to collect and process data. Secondly, Computers will help application of quantitative techniques to management Problems. Thirdly, there will be simulation of higher order thinking though computer programmers. Thus, improved and innovative use of information technology would be an essential factor in future management. In view of the fact that information technology will challenge many long-established practices and doctrines, we will need to rethink some of the attitudes and Values which we have taken for granted. In particular. we may have to reappraise our traditional notions about the worth of the individual as opposed to the organization and about the mobility rights of young men. This kind of inquiry may be painfully difficult, but will be increasingly necessary. † It may be noted that technological changes are not an independent force. They overlap the social changes . nd affect the organization relationships. For instance, improved technology would reduce total employment which will create social reactions. Further, the efficiency of managerial personnel and professionals like doctors, chartered accountants, engineers, etc. would increase considerably because of advancements in technology. 4. Changes in Physical Environment. Protection of ecology and maintenance of ecological balance has become a major issue these days. This is evident from the rise of several social groups against felling of trees for commercial use (chipko movement) and air, water and noise pollution. The society will no longer tolerate environmental pollution. The typical examples are: closure of several tannery units in Kanpur by the Supreme Court as they were polluting the Holy Ganga and closure of several foundries around Taj Mahal by the Supreme Court as they were polluting the air leading to adverse effect on the whiteness of the national monument. The country cannot allow tragedies like Bhopal Gas Leak Case, 1984 at Union Carbide to occur again. The growing awareness of the people about environment will pose problems before the managers. They will have to study the adverse effects of business operations on the environment and take suitable steps to check all kinds of pollution. Thus, there will be greater emphasis on the development of technology for pollution control and environmental restoration. 5. Changes in Political Environment. There will be greater Government’s interference in business to safeguard the interest of workers, consumers and the public at large. Government’s participation will also pose many challenges before management. The Government may restrict the scope of private sector in certain areas. It does not mean chances of co-operation between the Government and private sector are ruled out. In fact, there will be more and more joint sector enterprises. The fear of nationalization of the mismanaged units will continue. Financial institutions will not be silent spectators; they will take active part in the policy formulation of the firms whom they have advanced funds. 6. Changes in International Environment. Several changes are taking place in the international environment which may have adverse or favorable impact on a particular business. For example, the disintegration of U. S. S. R. aused great miseries for the Indian exporters in the early nineties. Not only their investment was blocked, further exports were also hindered. This compelled the Indian businessmen to explore new export markets. The managements will have to be alert in future to meet the challenges posed by international forces Because of liberalization of industrial licensing by developing nations and reduct ion of economic barriers between nations as a result of GAIT agreement 1993; several changes seem to be imminent in the near future. Multilateral trade among the nations will increase. The role of World Trade Organisation1 I. M. F. , World Bank and other international institutions will change and a new economic order will take place leading to globalization of economies. EMERGING HORIZONS OF MANAGEMENT (Challenges before Future Managers) The changing environment of business is likely to pose the following challenges before the future managers: 1. Reconciliation of Conflicting Demands of Social Groups The organizations are expected to reconcile the conflicting demands of various stakeholders such as owners, employees, suppliers, customers, government and the community. The shareholders or owners of the business want the highest possible return, the workers the highest possible†¢ wages, the consumers the goods at the lowest possible price and the Government wants the highest possible revenue. It would be the duty of management to bring about a compromise among the interests of various parties. The business managers will also have to take care of the expectations of the society such as higher quality, fair trade practices, maintenance of physical environment, etc. If they fail to meet the needs and expectations of the society, it will be rendered difficult for them to survive. The managements of organizations will also have to give due consideration to the human resources working with them. They will have to change their policies to give the workers a greater say an influence in organizational functioning. Latent human capability is the most valuable resource of the organization much more important than physical and financial resources. Increasingly, management will emphasize the importance of human resources and recognize that maintaining a viable psycho-social system is one of its most vital tasks. In other words, the organizations will have to decentralize authority, introduce flexibility in the structure and give sufficient freedom to individuals to take decisions to meet the social, economic and technological challenges successfully. 2. Economic Liberalization The liberalization of the Indian economy has posed the following challenges for the managers : (a) Competition in the fast growing domestic market. Diversification into the core and infrastructure sectors—power, telecoms, roads, ports, insurance, etc. hich was earlier reserved for the public sector (c) Raising India’s exports and share of the world trade. (d) Achieving the vision of becoming India-based Multinational Corporation. 3. Globalization The world has become a small village, thanks to the rapid means of transportation and telecommunications. Satellite transmission has widened the geographical markets. The countries have become interdependent, in terms of technology, capital, purchases and sales. Global, companies buy from the cheapest markets and sell where they can get maximum prices. They carry on production in the country where cost of production is the minimum. In other words, globalization calls for reduction of costs, improvement of quality, expansion of markets and diversification into new areas and markets. Indian companies use not only imported components, but are also selling their finished products to markets abroad. To take advantage of global markets, Indian companies are making strategic alliances with foreign companies. We have Mod i-Xerox, HPL-Olivetti, ICIM-Fuji, Kinetic Honda, etc. Global networking of suppliers, distributors, technical collaborators, ad agencies, etc. is being created. The most successful companies will rely more and more on global integration and networking. 4. Expanding Operations of Business Organizations The changes in environment and technologies during the last four decades have compelled organizations to increase their scope and encompass additional activities. The development of big industrial houses with activities in a wide variety of industri4l fields is a typical example of such expansion of activities of organizations. Industrial giants have accumulated vast financial resources and spread their risks),y branching out into different areas of economic activity. To cope with the changing requirements, such organizations have developed new organizational structure with focus on planning, control and coordination. The managerial systems of these companies are substantially more flexible and dynamic than of the simplified single-product companies. Another facet of expanding frontiers of organizational activities is the spread of corporations outside the national boundaries. These corporations are known as multinational or transnational corporations.